The pancreas is a soft, finely lobulated gland located behind the peritoneum on the posterior abdominal wall and has both endocrine and exocrine functions. It plays an essential role in the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) refers to reducing pancreatic enzyme activity (mainly pancreatic lipase) in the intestinal lumen below the threshold required for digestive functions.
The pancreas is a composite organ, which has exocrine and endocrine functions. The endocrine portion is arranged as discrete islets of Langerhans, which are composed of five different endocrine cell types (alpha, beta, delta, epsilon, and upsilon) secreting at least five hormones including glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, ghrelin, and pancreatic polypeptide, respectively.
The pancreas is an extended, accessory digestive gland that is found retroperitoneally, crossing the bodies of the L1 and L2 vertebra on the posterior abdominal wall. The pancreas lies transversely in the upper abdomen between the duodenum on the right and the spleen on the left. It is divided into the head, neck, body and the tail. The head lies on the inferior vena cava and renal vein and is surrounded by the C loop of the duodenum. The tail of the pancreas extends up to splenic hilum. The pancreas produces an exocrine secretion (pancreatic juice from the acinar cells) which then enters the duodenum through the main and accessory pancreatic ducts and endocrine secretions (glucagon and insulin from the pancreatic islets of Langerhans) that enter the blood.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems.
Key Points
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems.
As an endocrine gland, the pancreas produces several important hormones that include insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.
As a digestive organ, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes that assist the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine.
These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Key Terms
- pancreas: A gland near the stomach that secretes a fluid into the duodenum to help with food digestion.
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems. As an endocrine gland, the pancreas produces several important hormones that include insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.
As a digestive organ, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes that assist the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Location
The pancreas is located posterior to the stomach and next to the duodenum. The pancreas functions as both an exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine function of the pancreas is essential for digestion as it produces many of the enzymes that break down the protein, carbohydrates, and fats indigestible foods.
Composition
The pancreas is composed of pancreatic exocrine cells, whose ducts are arranged in clusters called acini. The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the inactivated digestive enzymes, mainly trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, pancreatic lipase, and amylase, that are secreted into the lumen of the acini.
Structure and Function
Divisions
The pancreas is divided into 4 parts: head, neck, body, and tail.
The head of the pancreas is the enlarged part of the gland that is surrounded by the C-shaped curve of the duodenum. On its way to the descending part of the duodenum, the bile duct lies in a groove on the posterosuperior surface of the head or is embedded in its substance. The body of the pancreas continues from the neck passes over the aorta and L2 vertebra. The anterior surface of the body of the pancreas is covered with the peritoneum. The posterior surface of the body is devoid of peritoneum and is in contact with the aorta, the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), the left suprarenal gland, the left kidney, and renal vessels.
The neck of the pancreas is short. The tail of the pancreas lies anterior to the left kidney, where it is closely related to the splenic hilum and the left colic flexure. The main pancreatic duct carrying the pancreatic secretions joins with the bile duct to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla, which opens into the descending part of the duodenum. The hepatopancreatic sphincter of Oddi around the hepatopancreatic ampulla is a smooth muscle sphincter that controls the flow of bile and pancreatic juice into the ampulla and inhibits the reflux of duodenal substances into the ampulla.
Cell Types
The majority of the pancreas (approximately 80%) is made up of the exocrine pancreatic tissue. This is made of pancreatic acini (pyramidal acinar cells with the apex directed towards the lumen). These contain dense zymogen granules in the apical region, whereas the basal region contains the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum (which aids in synthesizing the digestive enzymes). These enzymes are stored in secretory vesicles called the Golgi complex. The basolateral membrane of the acinar cells contains several receptors for neurotransmitters including secretin, cholecystokinin, acetylcholine, which regulate exocytosis of the digestive enzymes.
The pancreas also contains the islet of Langerhans, which contains the endocrine cells. Unlike the exocrine enzymes which are secreted by exocytosis, the endocrine enzymes enter the bloodstream via a complex capillary network within the pancreatic blood flow. There are 4 types of endocrine cells (A cells produce glucagon, B cells produce insulin, D cells produce somatostatin, and F cells produce pancreatic polypeptide).
Stellate cells are a direct formation of epithelial structures within the pancreas. In conditions like chronic pancreatitis, these cells promote inflammation and fibrosis.
Anatomy of the Pancreas
The pancreas lies in the epigastrium or upper central region of the abdomen and can vary in shape.
Key Points
The pancreas lies in the epigastrium or upper central region of the abdomen.
The pancreas is composed of a head, uncinate process, neck, body, and tail.
A number of blood vessels connect the pancreas to the duodenum, spleen, and liver.
Key Terms
- epigastrium: The upper middle region of the abdomen, between the umbilical and hypochondriac regions.
Variation
Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrate species, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these fuse in the adult, but there are several exceptions.
Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or an equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.
In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen.
Anatomy of the Pancreas
The pancreas lies in the epigastrium or upper central region of the abdomen. It is composed of several parts.
- The head lies within the concavity of the duodenum.
- The uncinate process emerges from the lower part of the head and lies deep to superior mesenteric vessels.
- The neck is the constricted part between the head and the body.
- The body lies behind the stomach.
- The tail is the left end of the pancreas. It lies in contact with the spleen.
The superior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the gastroduodenal artery and the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the superior mesenteric artery runs in the groove between the pancreas and the duodenum and supply the head of the pancreas.
The pancreatic branches of the splenic artery also supply the neck, body, and tail of the pancreas. The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein; the head drains into the superior mesenteric and portal veins. Lymph is drained via the splenic, celiac, and superior mesenteric lymph nodes.
Parts of a pancreas: 1: Head of pancreas 2: Uncinate process of pancreas 3: Pancreatic notch 4: Body of the pancreas 5: Anterior surface of the pancreas 6: Inferior surface of the pancreas 7: Superior margin of the pancreas 8: Anterior margin of the pancreas 9: Inferior margin of the pancreas 10: Omental tuber 11: Tail of the pancreas 12: Duodenum.
Histology of the Pancreas
The pancreas serves digestive and endocrine functions, and it is composed of two types of tissue: islets of Langerhans and acini.
Key Points
Under a microscope, the stained sections of the pancreas reveal two different types of parenchymal tissue.
The light-stained clusters of cells are called islets of Langerhans. These produce hormones that underlie the endocrine functions of the pancreas.
The dark-stained cells form acini that are connected to ducts. Acinar cells belong to the exocrine pancreas and secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via a system of ducts.
Key Terms
- islets of Langerhans: Regions in the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells.
- acini: An acinus (adjective: acinar; plural: acini) refers to any cluster of cells that resembles a many-lobed berry, such as raspberry (acinus is Latin for berry).
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine systems of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland that produces several important hormones—including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide—as well as a digestive organ that secretes pancreatic juice that contain digestive enzymes to assist the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes also help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Under a microscope, stained sections of the pancreas reveal two different types of parenchymal tissue. Light-stained clusters of cells are called islets of Langerhans. These produce hormones that underlie the endocrine functions of the pancreas.
The dark-stained cells form acini that are connected to ducts. Acinar cells belong to the exocrine pancreas and secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via a system of ducts.
The pancreas is a dual-function gland that has the features of endocrine and exocrine glands.
The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a million cell clusters called islets of Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretion
- α cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in the blood ).
- β cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in the blood).
- Delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells).
- PP cells or gamma cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords and are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells in direct contact with vessels, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, either by cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition.
Pancreatic Juice
The pancreatic fluid contains digestive enzymes that help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Key Points
Pancreatic fluid or juice contains digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine where they help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats) in the chyme.
Pancreatic fluid is alkaline in nature due to its high concentration of bicarbonate ions that neutralize the gastric acid and allow effective enzymic action.
Pancreatic juice secretion is regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. It is produced by the walls of the duodenum upon detection of acid food, proteins, fats, and vitamins.
Key Terms
- pancreatic fluid: A liquid secreted by the pancreas that contains a variety of enzymes, including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, and amylase.
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine systems of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland that produces several important hormones—including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide—and a digestive organ that secretes pancreatic juice that has digestive enzymes that assist the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Pancreatic Juice
Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas that contains a variety of enzymes, including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases, and amylase.
Pancreatic fluid: A schematic diagram that shows pancreatic acini and the ducts where fluid is created and released.
Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature due to its high concentration of bicarbonate ions that neutralize the gastric acid and allow effective enzymic action.
Pancreatic juice secretion is regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. It is produced by the walls of the duodenum upon detection of acid food, proteins, fats, and vitamins. Pancreatic secretion consists of an aqueous bicarbonate component from the duct cells and an enzymatic component from the acinar cells.
Because the pancreas is a sort of storage depot for digestive enzymes, injury to the pancreas is potentially fatal. A puncture of the pancreas generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention.
A variety of factors cause high pressure within pancreatic ducts. Pancreatic duct rupture and pancreatic juice leakage cause pancreatic self-digestion.
Functions
Glandular Function of the Pancreas
The pancreas is a dual-function gland, having features of both endocrine and exocrine glands.
Exocrine Function
- The pancreas synthesizes its enzymes in the inactive form, known as zymogens, to avoid digesting itself. The enzymes are activated once they reach the small intestine. The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate ions from the ductal cells to neutralize the acidic chyme that the stomach churns out.
- The exocrine function of the pancreas is controlled by the hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin, and secretin, which are hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum in response to food.
- The two major proteases that the pancreas synthesizes are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. These zymogens are inactivated forms of trypsin and chymotrypsin.
- Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enterokinase, which is produced by the intestinal mucosa, activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen to their active forms. Pancreatic secretions accumulate in small ducts that drain to the main pancreatic duct that drains directly into the duodenum.
Endocrine Function
The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a million cell clusters called the islets of Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretions:
- α cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in the blood ).
- β cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in the blood).
- Delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells).
- PP cells or gamma cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
The Islets of Langerhans
The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords that are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells that are in direct contact with blood vessels, either by cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition.
Pancreas: This image shows the location of the pancreas relative to other organs. The pancreas is seen positioned with the duodenum slightly on top of it and next to the right kidney. The pancreas crosses above the left kidney.
Pancreatic Hormones and Their Function[rx][rx][rx]
Insulin
- Source: Beta cells of islets of the pancreas.
- Synthesis: Insulin is a peptide hormone. The insulin mRNA is translated as a single-chain precursor called preproinsulin, and removal of its signal peptide during insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum generates proinsulin. Within the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin is exposed to several specific endopeptidases, which excise the C peptide (one of three domains of proinsulin), thereby generating the mature form of insulin. Insulin is secreted from the cell by exocytosis and diffuses into islet capillary blood. C-peptide is also secreted into the blood in a 1:1 molar ratio with insulin. Although C-peptide has no established biological action, it is used as a useful marker for insulin secretion.
- Transport: insulin circulates entirely in unbound form (T1/2 = 6 min).
- Main Target cells: hepatic, muscle, and adipocyte cells (i.e., cells specialized for energy storage).
- Mechanism of action: Insulin binds to a specific receptor tyrosine kinase on the plasma membrane and increases its activity to phosphorylate numerous regulatory enzymes and other protein substrates.
Regulation of its secretion
- Plasma glucose level is the main regulator of insulin secretion. The change in the concentration of plasma glucose that occurs in response to feeding or fasting is the main determinant of insulin secretion. Modest increases in plasma glucose level provoke a marked increase in plasma insulin concentration. Glucose is taken up by beta cells via glucose transporters (GLUT2).
- The subsequent metabolism of glucose increases cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentrations and closes ATP-dependent potassium (KATP) channels in the beta cell membrane, causing membrane depolarization and an influx of calcium. Increased calcium intracellular concentration results in an increase of insulin secretion.
- Increased plasma amino acid and free fatty acid concentrations induce insulin secretion as well.
- Glucagon is also known to be a strong insulin secretagogue.
Physiological functions
Insulin plays an important role to keep plasma glucose values within a relatively narrow range throughout the day (glucose homeostasis). Insulin’s main actions are
- (1) In the liver, insulin promotes glycolysis and storage of glucose as glycogen (glycogenesis), as well as the conversion of glucose to triglycerides,
- (2) In muscle, insulin promotes the uptake of glucose and its storage as glycogen, and
- (3) in adipose tissue, insulin promotes the uptake of glucose and its conversion to triglycerides for storage.
Amylin (diabetes-associated peptide)
- Source: Beta cells of islets of the pancreas. It is co-secreted with insulin in response to caloric intake (feeding state).
- Target cells: Alpha cells of islets of pancreas and hypothalamus.
- Physiological functions: it suppresses glucagon secretion from the alpha cells of the islets in the pancreas via paracrine interaction between beta cells and alpha cells. Amylin also slows gastric emptying which delays the absorption of glucose from the small intestine into the circulation. Also, it stimulates the satiety center of the brain to limit food consumption.
Glucagon
- Source: Alpha cells of islets of the pancreas.
- Synthesis: The initial gene product is the mRNA encoding preproglucagon. A peptidase removes the signal sequence of preproglucagon during translation of the mRNA in the rough endoplasmic reticulum to yield proglucagon. Proteases in the alpha cells subsequently cleave the proglucagon into the mature glucagon molecule.
- Target cells: Hepatic cells.
- Mechanism of action: glucagon binds to a receptor that activates the heterotrimeric G protein Gas, which stimulates membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase. The cAMP formed by adenylyl cyclase, in turn, activates PKA, which phosphorylates numerous regulatory enzymes and other protein substrates.
- Regulation of its secretion: The amino acids released by digestion of a protein meal appear to be the main determinant of glucagon secretion.
- Physiological functions: Glucagon acts exclusively on the liver to antagonize insulin effects on hepatocytes. It enhances glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. It also promotes the oxidation of fat, which can lead to the formation of ketone bodies.
Somatostatin
- Source: Delta cells of the islets of the pancreas, hypothalamus, and D cells of gastric glands.
- Target cells: Beta cells of islets of the pancreas, somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland, and the G cells of the gastric glands.
- Mechanism of action: Somatostatin binds to a receptor that activates the heterotrimeric inhibitory G protein, which inhibits membrane-bound adenylyl cyclase and cAMP formation.
- Regulation of its secretion: Glucagon stimulates somatostatin secretion via paracrine interaction between alpha cells and delta cells of the islets of the pancreas.
- Physiological functions: Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of multiple hormones, including growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, gastrin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and thyroid-stimulating hormone.
Ghrelin
- Source: Epsilon cells of the islets of the pancreas, endocrine cells in the stomach, and hypothalamus.
- Target cells: Beta cells of the islets of the pancreas and somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland.
- Physiological functions: ghrelin inhibits the secretion of insulin from Beta cells of the islets of the pancreas via paracrine interaction between delta cells and beta cells of the islets of the pancreas. It also stimulates appetite and growth hormone secretion.
Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)
- Pancreatic polypeptide is secreted from upsilon (F) cells of the islets of the pancreas. Dietary intake of nutrients alters the secretion of the pancreatic polypeptide. Its function is not decidedly understood yet.
- Paracrine Interaction Between Pancreatic Endocrine Cells
- Insulin secreted by beta cells acts as a prime hormone of glucose homeostasis. Insulin and amylin inhibit glucagon secretion by alpha cells. Whereas glucagon activates insulin and somatostatin secretion, somatostatin secreted by delta cells and ghrelin by epsilon cells inhibits insulin secretion.
Blood Supply and Lymphatics
Arterial Supply
Branches of the splenic artery (a branch of the celiac trunk), superior mesenteric artery (SMA), and the common hepatic artery provide blood supply to the pancreas [rx][rx].
-
Pancreatic head: The gastroduodenal artery (a branch of the common hepatic artery) supplies the head and the uncinate process of the pancreas in the form of the pancreaticoduodenal artery (PDA). Part of the inferior portion of the head is supplied by the inferior PDA which arises from the SMA.
-
Body and the tail: The splenic artery and its branches supply these.
Venous Supply
-
Pancreatic head: The head drains into the superior mesenteric vein (SMV).
-
Body and the neck: The splenic vein drains these.
The SMV and splenic vein merge to form the portal vein.
Nerves
The pancreas has a complex network of parasympathetic, sympathetic, and sensory innervations [rx]. It also has an intrinsic nerve plexus. Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are dispersed to pancreatic acinar cells. The parasympathetic fibers arise from the posterior vagal trunk and are secretomotor, but the secretions from the pancreas are predominantly mediated by cholecystokinin and secretin, which are hormones produced by the epithelial cells of the duodenum and proximal intestinal mucosa regulated by acidic compounds from the stomach. Sympathetic innervation is via the T6-T10 thoracic splanchnic nerves and the celiac plexus.
Pancreas Conditions
- Diabetes, Type 1: The body’s immune system attacks and destroys the pancreas’ insulin-producing cells. Lifelong insulin injections are required to control blood sugar.
- Diabetes, Type 2: The body becomes resistant to insulin, causing blood sugar rises. The pancreas eventually loses the ability to appropriately produce and release insulin, leading to a need for synthetic insulin.
- Cystic fibrosis: A genetic disorder that affects multiple body systems, usually including the lungs and the pancreas. Digestive problems and diabetes often result.
- Pancreatic cancer: The pancreas has many different types of cells, each of which can give rise to a different type of tumor. The most common type arises from the cells that line the pancreatic duct. Because there are usually few or no early symptoms, pancreatic cancer is often advanced by the time it’s discovered.
- Pancreatitis: The pancreas becomes inflamed and damaged by its own digestive chemicals. Swelling and death of tissue of the pancreas can result. Although alcohol or gallstones can contribute, sometimes a cause for pancreatitis is never found.
- Pancreatic pseudocyst: After a bout of pancreatitis, a fluid-filled cavity called a pseudocyst can form. Pseudocysts may resolve spontaneously, or they may need surgical drainage.
- Islet cell tumor: The hormone-producing cells of the pancreas multiply abnormally, creating a benign or cancerous tumor. These tumors produce excess amounts of hormones and then release them into the blood. Gastrinomas, glucagonomas, and insulinomas are examples of islet cell tumors.
- Enlarged pancreas: An enlarged pancreas is rare. It may be a harmless anatomic abnormality or it may be a sign of autoimmune pancreatitis.
Pancreas Tests
- Physical examination: By pressing on the center of the belly, a doctor might check for masses or abdominal pain. They can also look for other signs of pancreas conditions. Pancreatic pain often radiates to the back.
- Computed tomography scan: A CT scanner takes multiple X-rays, and a computer creates detailed images of the pancreas and abdomen. Contrast dye may be injected into your veins to improve the images.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Magnetic waves create highly detailed images of the abdomen. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is an MRI that focuses on the pancreas, liver, and bile system.
- Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): Using a camera on a flexible tube advanced from the mouth to the intestine, a doctor can access the area of the pancreas head. Tiny surgical tools can be used to diagnose and treat some pancreas conditions.
- Pancreas biopsy: Either using a needle through the skin or a surgical procedure, a small piece of pancreas tissue is removed to look for cancer or other conditions.
- Endoscopic ultrasound: A probe is placed on the belly, and harmless sound waves create images by reflecting off the pancreas and other organs.
- Amylase and lipase: Blood tests showing elevated levels of these pancreatic enzymes can suggest pancreatitis.
- Sweat chloride test: A painless electric current stimulates the skin to sweat, and the chloride in perspiration is measured. People with cystic fibrosis often have high sweat chloride levels.
- Genetic testing: Many different mutations of a single gene can cause cystic fibrosis. Genetic testing can help identify if an adult is an unaffected carrier or if a child will develop cystic fibrosis.
Pancreas Treatments
- Insulin: Injecting insulin under the skin causes body tissues to absorb glucose, lowering blood sugar. Insulin can be created in a lab or purified from animal sources.
- Pseudocyst drainage: A pseudocyst can be drained by inserting a tube or needle through the skin into the pseudocyst. Alternately, a small tube or stent is placed between either the pseudocyst and the stomach or the small intestine, draining the cyst.
- Pseudocyst surgery: Sometimes, surgery is necessary to remove a pseudocyst. Either laparoscopy (multiple small incisions) or laparotomy (one larger incision) may be needed.
- Pancreatic cancer resection (Whipple procedure): The standard surgery to remove pancreatic cancer. In a Whipple procedure, a surgeon removes the head of the pancreas, the gallbladder, and the first section of the small intestine (the duodenum). Occasionally, a small part of the stomach is also removed.
- Pancreatic enzymes: People with cystic fibrosis or chronic pancreatitis often must take oral pancreatic enzymes to replace those that the malfunctioning pancreas doesn’t make.
- Pancreas transplantation: An organ donor’s pancreas is transplanted into someone with diabetes or cystic fibrosis. In some patients, a pancreas transplant cures diabetes.
- Islet cell transplantation: Insulin-producing cells are harvested from an organ donor’s pancreas and transplanted into someone with type 1 diabetes. The still-experimental procedure can potentially cure type 1 diabetes.
- Pancreatic stenting/pancreatic endotherapy: A stent may be placed in a narrow or blocked pancreatic duct to widen it or to drain extra fluid. It is also used to relieve pain.
References
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